Fasting in Christianity

In New Testament Greek, the word nestis means “one who has not eaten,’ ‘who is empty,’ then ‘who fasts.’”  Similarly, the verb nesteuo means “to be without food or hungry,’ but mostly ‘to fast.’” The noun nesteia means “suffering hunger,’ usually ‘fasting’” (Kittel, 1985).  Another Lexicon defines the family of words as “to go without food for a set time as a religious duty – ‘to fast, fasting’” (Louw, 1996).  The voluntary act of temporary abstention from food or nourishment for religious purposes is known as fasting; it is observed in all religions as a means of preparing for dealings with deity (e.g., in times of mourning, as an expression of submission, before entering special service, as preparation for receiving prophetic revelations, etc.).  This article is intended to deal with Biblical fasting and especially its place in Christianity.

Fasting in the Old Testament

Before receiving the Law of God on Mt. Sinai, Moses fasted 40 days and 40 nights (Exodus 34:28; Deuteronomy 9:9).  After staunchly defending the Law of God on Mount Carmel, Elijah also fasted 40 days and 40 nights as he traveled to Mt. Horeb (aka - Sinai) where he appeared in the presence of God (1 Kings 19:8ff.).  These two special occasions of fasting will be matched only by the fast enjoined by Christ following His baptism (which will be illuminated further along in this article).

The only religious fast prescribed in the Law of God for the Israelites to regularly observe was the fast on the Day of Atonement – the special day of national contrition and confession of sins (Leviticus 16:29-31; 23:27-32; Numbers 29:7).  This annual fast, conducted concomitantly with a complete rest from work, lasted the entire day, from evening to evening as reckoned for the Jewish day.  The seriousness of this fast is understood through the severe penalty of death imposed upon violators.  Although fasting was imposed upon the Jews only on the Day of Atonement, Judaism would eventually incorporate frequent fast days and a host of reasons for such observances.  

Fasting became an expression of submission to God by the people collectively (Judges 20:26) and individually (2 Samuel 12:16-23).  Those who buried the body of king Saul and that of his sons mourned and fasted for seven days (1 Samuel 31:13).  When David learned of Saul’s death, he and his men mourned, wept, and fasted until evening (2 Samuel 1:12).  King Ahab, after hearing the curse of God which would befall him, humbled himself before the Lord by tearing his clothes, putting on sackcloth, and fasting (1 Kings 21:27).  David wept and fasted while pleading with God for relief from his adversaries (Psalm 69:10). 

Fasting was initiated by those seeking God’s protection (Ezra 8:21-23; Esther 4:16). In times of national emergency or impending calamity, people would fast to obtain God’s favor (Nehemiah 1:4; Jeremiah 36:6-9; Jonah 3:5ff).  Fasting sometimes complemented vows (1 Samuel 14:24).  Daniel sought the Lord “by prayer and supplications, with fasting, sackcloth, and ashes” prior to receiving divine revelation and visions (Daniel 9:3). Fasting often accompanied penitential prayer and confession of sins (1 Samuel 7:6; Nehemiah 9:1-3).   God even exhorted the nation to “Return to Me with all your heart, and with fasting, weeping, and mourning” (Joel 2:12-15; cf. 1:14).  Genuine fasting was an acceptable means of obtaining the blessings and favor of God.

However, God sharply reproved Israel’s notion that fasting, as a mere external observance, would gain them approval while unrepentantly participating in sinful behavior (Isaiah 58:1ff).  When their sins multiplied exponentially, God warned Jeremiah, saying, “Do not pray for the welfare of this people. When they fast, I am not going to listen to their cry; and when they offer burnt offering and grain offering, I am not going to accept them. Rather I am going to make an end of them by the sword, famine and pestilence” (Jeremiah 14:11-12).  While held captive in Babylon, special fasts were appointed to remember Jerusalem (Zechariah 7:3), occurring in the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months (Zechariah 8:19).  God resented these observances, inquiring of Israel, “When you fasted and mourned in the fifth and seventh months these seventy years, was it actually for Me that you fasted?” (Zechariah 7:5). 

Sincere fasting as a religious observance is a humbling or bowing down of the soul by temporarily forsaking physical necessities in order to devote oneself wholly before God.  This was exemplified in the Law regarding the Day of Atonement where the command was issued, “you shall humble your souls” (Leviticus 16:29, 31).  Theologians agree that this phrase prescribes an annual fast.  God acknowledged Israel’s inquiry about His refusal to reward their fasting as they pleaded, “Why have we fasted and Thou dost not see? Why have we humbled ourselves and Thou dost not notice?” (Isaiah 58:3).  Fasting emphasizes dependance upon God, afflicting the body through abstinence of food while seeking favor with God in prayer, penitence, mourning, submissiveness, service, etc.  It is an act of self-renunciation and self-discipline which is designed to impress upon God the great need of man to be forgiven, reconciled, and blessed by Him.

The general Jewish fast lasted one day, from morning to evening (Judges 20:26; 1 Samuel 14:24; 2 Samuel 1:12).  A more severe fast may last for three days (Esther 4:16), seven days (1 Samuel 31:13), or even forty day and forty nights (Exodus 34:28).  How severe fasting affects the body is shown in Psalm 109:24 where it is explained, “My knees are weak from fasting; and my flesh has grown lean, without fatness.”  Fasting, especially accompanied with prayer and penitence, gained efficacy with God for forgiveness, healing, and even exorcism in certain circumstances and times.

Fasting in the Gospels of the New Testament

Fasting in the New Testament is first mentioned in association with Anna, an elderly widow who took up residence in the temple, “serving night and day with fastings and prayers” (Luke 2:37).   As reflected in the Old Testament, Anna adopts voluntary frequent fasting as an expression of pious consecration and profound commitment to God.  However, unlike the implementation of vain, ostentatious fasting, which was categorically condemned by the prophets, Anna is presented as a prophetess of God supplied with divine awareness of the infant Jesus as God’s salvation and the long-awaited hope of Israel.  Anna’s frequent fasting was clearly approved by God who blessed her with supernatural insight into the identity of the Messiah.

In resemblance to Moses and Elijah, Jesus fasted 40 days and 40 nights in the wilderness following His baptism by John in the waters of the Jordan (Matthew 4:2; Luke 4:2).  The fasts of Moses, Elijah, and Jesus are the most severe of any related in the Bible and are distinctly diverse from the common fasts conducted in Judaism.  Whereas Moses fasted in preparation for receiving the first Covenant of God on Mt. Sinai (Deuteronomy 9:9-11), and Elijah fasted after defending the integrity of the first Covenant on Mount Carmel, Jesus fasted as the living embodiment of the New Covenant of God, confirming the Messianic dignity and devotion to God suitable to His position as the Messenger of the Covenant (cf. Malachi 3:1).

Although no other mention is made of Jesus fasting, this one example is sufficient to indicate His acceptance of voluntary fasting as an expression of personal commitment and dependance upon God in times of temptation and hardship.  Because He lived without sin (Hebrews 4:15), it cannot be denied that Jesus faithfully observed the annual fast prescribed in the Law for the Day of Atonement.  In His teaching about fasting, Jesus presupposes that His disciples would engage in voluntary fasting in accordance with their religious devotion and discipline.  Jesus reproved the misguided views of those who fasted for merely external reasons, saying, “Whenever you fast, do not put on a gloomy face as the hypocrites do, for they neglect their appearance so that they will be noticed by men when they are fasting. Truly I say to you, they have their reward in full. But you, when you fast, anoint your head and wash your face so that your fasting will not be noticed by men, but by your Father who is in secret; and your Father who sees what is done in secret will reward you” (Matthew 6:16-18). 

Jesus did not forbid fasting as a religious observance; rather, He regulated the personal disposition expressed while fasting by denouncing the vain, externally focused traditions long in vogue within Judaism, insisting, instead, upon inward reflection and observance before God.  It is noteworthy that Jesus does not say, “If you fast,” as indicative of an optional adherence, but says, “Whenever you fast…when you fast.”  He expresses an expectation that devout worshippers would engage in fasting as a means of religious commitment and consecration.

Following a celebratory feast in the home of Levi (Luke 5:27-32), a question was raised with Jesus concerning why the disciples of John the baptizer and the disciples of the Pharisees engaged in fasting, whereas the disciples of Jesus did not fast.  Inferentially, the feast in the home of Levi seems to have occurred on one of the two days each week (Monday and Thursday) generally observed as Jewish days of fasting.  As indicated in Jesus’ rebuke of the improper disposition of those fasting merely to be noticed by men (Matthew 6:16), the “fasting police” were very observant as to who was and who was not keeping the designated fast days.  Because fasting was associated with sorrow, mourning, and hardship, Jesus took the opportunity to teach a valuable lesson intended to further illustrate His Messianic dignity.

Marriage ceremonies were celebrated events within Judaism.  The close friends and relatives of the bridegroom continued to celebrate the nuptials of the newlyweds for about a week following the ceremony.  Rejoicing, therefore, was expected while the bridegroom remained in company with the attendants.  Jesus used an allegory of this celebration to exemplify that He was the celebrated Bridegroom in present company with His disciples, and while together, fasting was improper, because this was a time of rejoicing and festivity.

However, He poignantly explained that the time would come when “the bridegroom is taken away from them, then they will fast in those days” (Luke 5:33-35).  Cryptically referring to His own death as the time when He would be taken away from His disciples, Jesus explained, “then they will fast in those days.”  Again, Jesus does not say “if they fast,” or “they may choose to fast,” but expressly, “then they will fast in those days.”  Because fasting is most often associated with times of mourning, vexation, or anxiety, the followers of Christ would certainly fast in His absence.

In continuation of the narrative, Jesus introduced two other illustrations which have proved puzzling to many expositors: 1) One does not patch an old garment with a new (unshrunk) piece of cloth, for when laundered, the patch will shrink and a worse tear will be the result; 2) One does not put new wine into an old, fragile wineskin, for when the wine ferments, the old skin will burst and the contents will be lost.  New wine must be placed into pliable new skins (Luke 5:36-39).  Although correctly interpreted as a distinction between the Old Covenant and the New Covenant of God, few have understood the applicability of the illustrations within the topic of fasting.  Judaism, afflicted with many corruptions in the times of Christ, was no longer a suitable container or garment to retain the truth of the gospel of Christ.  The inordinate pressure borne upon the people by corrupted Judaism to frequently fast was an opportunity for instruction.

Those accustomed to fasting two days each week were incapable of rejoicing in the presence of the Messiah and His new garment of salvation. The old ways were determined to be better by staunch adherents who would vehemently resist the new garment in favor of merely patching the old.  The book of Acts documents this tenacious resistance, but inevitably, the old gave way to the new, for Christ “made the first obsolete. But whatever is becoming obsolete and growing old is ready to disappear” (Hebrews 8:13).  The occasion of early opposition to the celebration of Christ in the home of Levi (in favor of a man-made day of fasting) prompted Jesus to highlight the distinction between the Old Covenant, which was quickly becoming obsolete, with the New Covenant, which was indeed better in every conceivable way (Hebrews 8:6).  The rejection of the New Covenant would lead to ruin for the Jewish nation clinging to the obsolete Old Covenant. 

Narrating the parable of the Pharisee and Publican who went up to the temple to pray, Jesus recounts that the Pharisee boasted, “I fast twice a week; I pay tithes of all that I get” (Luke 18:12).  The days observed by the Jews each week for fasting were Mondays and Thursdays.  The Pharisee voiced his exemplary conduct in fasting and tithing as reasons to boast of his superior piousness; however, his prayer arose no higher than himself, for he was self-righteous.  God heard the prayer of the Publican who beat his breast, confessing his sinfulness to God.  The old garment of Judaism was in tatters at the time of Christ’s arrival as the Messenger of the Covenant – a much needed better Covenant.  Absent heart-felt appeal to God, fasting is empty and without reward; but as demonstrated by Anna, proper fasting, contritely engaged, precipitates blessings from God.

Fasting in the Acts of the Apostles

While unmentioned in the opening pages of the history of the church, fasting decisively reappears in the lives of Christians laboring at the church in Antioch.  Catalogued as “prophets and teachers,” Barnabas, Simeon (aka Niger), Lucius, Manaen, and Saul “were ministering to the Lord and fasting” (Acts 13:2).  Undoubtedly, fasting in the absence of Christ’s physical presence was indeed practiced by His followers as foretold to the disciples of John and the Pharisees who questioned why Jesus’ disciples did not fast after the manner of typical Jews.  The church in Antioch combined fasting with other ministerial activities of devotion to Christ.  Fasting, in this context, likely serves as a deepening dedication and greater apprehension of the spirituality of their service to Christ.  There is nothing casual or offhand about Christian service in the church at Antioch; rather, they demonstrate full commitment, selflessness, and keen attention to the work of Christ which is higher and nobler in word and deed.

Having received instruction from the Holy Spirit to set apart Barnabas and Saul for a special mission campaign, the church sent these two on their way only after “they had fasted and prayed and laid their hands on them” (Acts 13:3).  Here is an example of the church fasting prior to sending men on a mission work.  Conjoined with prayer and laying on of hands (to formally commit these men to the task assigned), fasting conveyed the deep solemnity of the church and their absolute reliance upon God to deliver a favorable outcome.  It should be noted that the special fast was arranged and conducted publicly by the church, yet without violation of the instruction given by Christ which sought to correct the misguided attitude of Jewish fasting which sought recognition from men rather than God.  Fasting in Antioch, though publicly elicited and observed in unison by the members, was conducted as an appropriate expression of reliance upon God.

After accomplishing the work assigned them by the Holy Spirit, Saul and Barnabas returned to Antioch, “And when they had arrived and gathered the church together, they began to report all things that God had done with them and how He had opened a door of faith to the Gentiles” (Acts 14:27).  At illustration is that fasting by the church in 13:3 demonstrated dependence upon God who providentially used Saul and Barnabas to successfully make the gospel of Christ known among the Gentiles.  Christians at Antioch fasted together as one body, suffering voluntary deprivation in view of the immense gravity involving the mission work commencing.  The infant church, feeling the need of divine guidance, aid, and blessing upon those appointed to this special work, humbled themselves, collectively, before God with prayer and fasting.

Another instance of fasting within the church springs from the appointment of elders in every church founded on the missionary journey conducted by Saul and Barnabas.  Luke informs the reader, “And when they had appointed elders for them in every church, having prayed with fasting, they commended them to the Lord in whom they had believed” (Acts 14:23).  Before leaving each church, the missionary pair entrusted the interests of the local church to a body of men specifically chosen for this purpose, referred to here as elders; and they commended the infant church and its elders together to the guardianship of God.  With due respect for the appointment of elders and the immense duty relegated upon them of protecting and caring for the church under their oversight (cf. Acts 20:28-32), the church engaged in a period of unified prayer conjoined with fasting. 

While sincere prayer alone is sufficient to receive a hearing with God, fasting provides an extra inducement, earnestness, or fervency to the prayer.  This explains why fasting is so often associated with less than normal occurrences or situations.  Whenever an extraordinary prayer or urgency is warranted, fasting is the acceptable octane boost to supplement the prayer.  The earliest churches were not ignorant of this valuable method of appeal to God, nor were they shamed into suspension of coordinated church fasting by unwarranted deductions relating to Jesus’ condemnation of Pharisaical fasting abuses.  On occasions involving deeper spirituality and significance, the church in the New Testament regarded collective fasting as an appropriate addition to prayer to ensure a beneficial hearing with God.

Fasting in the Epistles

Although a great majority of theologians declare the absence of fasting in the Epistles, two passages are regarded as possible references by the apostle Paul to his own participation in fasting.  The first appears in 2 Corinthians 6:5 where Paul voices sincere commitment as a servant of God witnessed “in much endurance, in afflictions, in hardships, in distresses, in beatings, in imprisonment, in tumults, in labors, in sleeplessness, in hunger, in purity, in knowledge, in patience, in kindness, in the Holy Spirit, in genuine love, in the word of truth, in the power of God...” (vv. 4-7).  The phrase in verse 5, “in hunger,” is translated “in fastings” in the American Standard Version (1901), King James Version, New King James Version, and in the United Bible Society’s 4th Edition Greek-English Interlinear.

The Greek noun nesteia means “‘suffering hunger,’ usually ‘fasting’” (Kittel, 1985).  This word contrast with the Greek limos which is defined as “hunger; famine – a strong, physiological need for food understood as if equivalent to a person who is starving in a famine” (Rick Brannon, 2020).  Interestingly, the word nesteia appears in plural form in this passage, therefore, any English translation should reflect the plurality.  The rendering “in hunger” does not indicate the plural; yet, as captured by the ASV, KJV, and NKJV, “in fastings” not only reflects the plural, but makes good sense to the reader as it indicates Paul’s participation in numerous fasts.

Another argument for “in fastings” is Paul’s change from listing the less desirable aspects or consequences of his service to listing those things which were more favorable.  The first seven (“in much endurance, in afflictions, in hardships, in distresses, in beatings, in imprisonments, in tumults”) are all related to the negative consequences which arose from his ministry.  The next eleven highlight the activities expected by an itinerant preacher of the gospel.  “In labors” would include the many and diverse activities of Paul in his effort to be a good servant of God.  “In sleeplessness” is a phrase familiar to every good servant who labors at preaching and teaching.  “In fastings” reveals Paul’s enduring commitment to fasting as witnessed even in his early ministry narrated by Luke as previously examined from Acts 13:2-3 and 14:23 – Paul was no stranger to religious oriented fasting.  The remainder of his list, “in purity, in knowledge, in patience, in kindness, in the Holy Spirit, in genuine love, in the word of truth, in the power of God…” likewise are all positive features of Paul’s service to God.

Bolstering this assessment is the second instance of fasting in the Epistles as Paul explains why his apostleship and ministry are unequaled by any other person.  Developing a list of things endured for the cause of Christ, Paul describes having “been in labor and hardship, often in wakefulness, in hunger and thirst, often without food, in cold and nakedness” (2 Corinthians 11:27).  The phrase “in hunger and thirst” translates the Greek limos, in singular form, appropriately rendered “hunger” as the word denotes “a strong, physiological need for food understood as if equivalent to a person who is starving in a famine.”  The subsequent phrase, “often without food” translates the Greek noun nesteia, again in plural form, and followed by a temporal adverb meaning “often.”  The ASV renders this phrase “in fastings often” (cf. KJV, NKJV), a translation reflecting both the plural noun and the original arrangement of words.

If the back-to-back phrases are each intended to express general hunger as contended by many theologians, it would be the only redundancy in Paul’s lengthy description.  The better assessment is captured by the ASV, KJV, and NKJV indicating not only general hunger and thirst endured   by Paul, but also his strong commitment to fasting as necessitated by circumstances requiring extraordinary prayer or selfless consecration.  Because the New Testament records Paul’s active participation in fasting with the church in Antioch and with the several newly planted churches resulting from the missionary campaign induced by the Holy Spirit (Acts 13:2-3; 14:23), it is improbable that Paul would fail to include fasting in these lists of personal sacrifices for the cause of Christ.  Paul fasted often in his ministry, including coordinated fasting with the whole church.

Is Fasting to be Observed in Christianity Today?

Respecting the authority of the Scriptures, sage men have maintained that the Bible directs or orders through at least two methods: 1) by explicit command, and 2) by divine example.  To these, some add “necessary inference” as a third way the Bible sanctions certain activities.  However, “necessary inference” has been witnessed by the author to justify all manner of things never intended within the Scriptures, and therefore must be assessed carefully and with much caution.  What may appear necessarily inferred by one person is not necessary at all to another.  Subjectivity becomes the master of what is or what is not necessarily inferred.  Explicit command and divine example of activities engaged by the church (without reproof or rebuke) are both accepted as ways or means by which Biblical authority is expressed.

In demonstration of the two methods, consider the explicit command of Peter for men to “Repent, and let each of you be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins” (Acts 2:38).  This represents a direct command pertaining to what one must do in order to obtain remission of sins.  Another instance of a command text is Paul’s statement, “Let him who steals steal no longer…Let no unwholesome word proceed from your mouth” (Ephesians 4:28-29). Explicit command is the unequivocal instruction of the apostles and prophets regarding certain activities or actions which must be complied with by one seeking to please God. 

In other instances, no direct command is ever issued, but the church is shown or described as engaging certain activities at certain times for certain reasons.  Acts 20:6-7 reveals Paul and his companions arriving in Troas where they tarry seven days, Luke then recording: “And on the first day of the week, when we were gathered together to break bread, Paul began talking to them, intending to depart the next day…”  While the Bible never commands the church to assemble on the first day of the week for worship, Acts 20:7 provides an example of the church meeting together “on the first day of the week,” and defining the purpose as “to break bread” (cf. Acts 2:42).  The seven-day wait by Paul and his entourage indicates they arrived on a Monday, waiting seven days until Sunday, the first day of the week, when the church faithfully convened for worship as anticipated by Paul.

Paul later wrote the church in Corinth concerning the unacceptable manner in which the Lord’s Supper was being eaten by that church, abruptly rebuking them, saying, “Therefore when you meet together, it is not to eat the Lord’s Supper, for in your eating each one takes his own supper first; and one is hungry and another is drunk” (1 Corinthians 11:17-22).  Paul goes on to provide definite command and instruction as to how the church is to appropriately observe the Lord’s Supper (vv. 23-34).  Although no explicit command is ever given by Christ or the apostles for the church to meet together to break bread (i.e., eat the Lord’s Supper), the church is demonstrated as assembling on the first day of the week for that very purpose. 

Leading voices in the church of the last two centuries in our country have accepted these examples of the church assembling on the first day of the week to eat the Lord’s Supper as authoritative and binding on the church of all ages to imitate.  This is known as doing Bible things in Bible ways. Fasting is a Bible thing to be done in a Bible way, also.

Conclusion

Fasting, although dismissed out-of-hand as unimportant and of no certain consequence in the modern church, remains firmly rooted as an act of devotion and consecration in both the Old and New Testaments.  Appealing to the lack of an expressed command for the church to fast by Jesus or His apostles and prophets in the construction of the church, fasting has been relegated to the great dust bin of once useful practices but no longer serviceable to the modern Christian.  While a specific command text is admittedly absent, it should not be forgotten or dismissed that Jesus spoke of “Whenever you fast…when you fast” (Matthew 6:16-18).  He also answered the question pertaining to why His disciples did not fast by explaining that when the bridegroom was taken away, “then they will fast in those days” (Luke 5:33-35).  Jesus explicitly states that His disciples “will fast,” and this without regard to whether a command was issued.  Jesus spoke to the longing of the souls of those desiring to be in His presence – “then they will fast in those days.”

If agreed that an example of Christian practice is binding as authoritative, how can it be construed that fasting is unimportant and, if observed at all, is strictly a matter of personal choice which is unrelated to church practice?  In Acts 13:2-3 and 14:23, fasting is, without question, practiced by the church under mutual consent, coordination, and synchronization.  It is wholly untenable to suggest that a solitary church, without prior discussion, agreement, or organization, could have all members voluntarily choose to engage in a period of fasting at precisely the same time and for the same reason while remaining totally unaware that any other was also fasting.  Unity of Christians in fasting and prayer was at the heart of Luke’s narrative concerning the activities of the church in Antioch.  This is an example intended to be followed by the church of all ages.

Furthermore, the churches founded by Saul and Barnabas engaged in fasting and prayer in preparation to appoint a body of elders in each local church (Acts 14:23). This demonstrates repeated initiation of fasting in the various cities as the appointment process was conducted from church to church.  Shall we appoint elders in the church today without following the divinely orchestrated pattern of fasting and prayer as set forth in the New Testament by men filled with the Holy Spirit?  In Acts 13:2 the church coordinated fasting in conjunction with their work of ministering to the Lord.  Is this not an example worthy of being followed by the church today as we strive to serve the Lord in various ministries and activities?  And when the same church sent certain men away on a missionary journey, they dared not send them away without collectively engaging in fasting and prayer.  The church today should be committed likewise.

It is quite probable that the weakness of the modern church in our nation is correlated to the failure of so many to properly grasp the significance of fasting as demonstrated in the examples set forth herein.  While voluntary individual fasting is not expressly opposed today (yet, neither encouraged nor expected), congregational fasting as a synchronized observance, even when conducted for the very reasons enjoined by the church in the New Testament, is condemned as lacking authority due to the absence of a direct command for the church to fast.  If the specified practices and activities of the church operating under the direct guidance and inspiration of the Holy Spirit are not intended as patterns of authorized practices for the church of all ages, where in all the New Testament is a binding example for the church to imitate as authoritative? 

In lieu of the expressed expectation of Jesus that his disciples “will fast,” coupled with the insuperable evidence that the early church did engage in fasting for religious reasons (including participation by apostles, prophets, teachers, and elders), it is not difficult for this elder in the Lord’s church to commend fasting as an appropriate observation by both the individual Christian (voluntarily partaking in fasting for personal reasons) and the local church, collectively as a body, assenting to coordinated fasting for a specified time and reason.  May God bless the sincere devotion of those committed to fasting in Christianity today.

Resources:

Kittel, Gerhard, Gerhard Friedrich and Geoffrey William Bromiley. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: W. B. Eerdsman, 1985.

Louw, Johannes P. and Eugene Albert Nida. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Based on Semantic Domains. Electronic ed. of the second edition. New York: United Bible Societies, 1996.

Rick Brannan, ed., Lexham Research Lexicon of the Greek New Testament, Lexham Research Lexicons (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020.